News About Complaint of Cafe de Coral

Introduction Cafe de Coral is one of the popular restaurants in Hong Kong. However, it also has some customer complaints. In this report, it will talk about one of the case of it. The contents include the background of Cafe de Coral, the causes of the customer complaint, which elements of procedural and personal sides of customer service were not fulfilled by the concerned service provider. Last one is what would we do to turn the dissatisfied customers to become satisfied ones, or motivate them to become loyal customers. News contentIn this article, Miss Tse who ordered a hot pot meal in Cafe de Coral. When she got the meal after twenty minutes, around ten cockroaches run outside from the hot pot. Miss Tse and her family even the other costumers were so scared and felt disgusted immediately. After that, Miss Tse complained to the manager for providing the â€Å"cockroaches† hot pot but the manager said that he or she only changed it to a new one. Also, the manager did not apo logize to her. Finally, Miss Tse got the drawback and complained the Cafe de Coral restaurant through Food and Environmental Hygiene Department.Background of Cafe de Coral Frist ,it will talk about the background of Cafe de Coral. Cafe de Coral Group is a listed company at the Hong Kong Stock Exchange. It is the largest Chinese restaurant chain in the world with business spans the four corners of the world. The group has over 580 operational units specialized in fast food, institutional catering, specialty restaurants, food manufacturing, distribution and other overseas food and beverage businesses. Cafe de Coral is one of the restaurants under Cafe de Coral Group. It is a Chinese restaurant chain.The first Cafe de Coral foothold on Sugar Street, Causeway Bay in 1968. Nowadays, Cafe de Coral has over 140 restaurants and serving more than 300,000 Hong Kong customers on an average day. It seems Cafe de Coral is a popular choice when Hong Kong citizen dinning outside. In additions, Caf e de Coral is a leader in Chinese fast food market in Hong Kong. Cafe de Coral promise that they will continue to thrive on the company philosophy of making customers the topmost priority and constantly outperforming itself. Besides, they will fulfill their motto of â€Å"A Hundred Points of Excellence†.Based on â€Å"A Hundred Points of Excellence†, the staffs of Cafe de Coral make â€Å"customer satisfaction† a top priority and all members of their staff take the concept of â€Å"heartfelt services† to heart. In order to have the regular training activities for employee to strengthen their skills and put team spirit into practice, Cafe de Coral has established the â€Å"Cafe de Coral Management Academy† as its training headquarters. Cafe de Coral also review the service attitudes and performance of staff through an objective â€Å"mystery shoppers† program. This practice helps enhance the quality of services.The service that Cafe de Coral has provided is catering. It is tangible. It can be measured , weighed, inspected, touched, smelled and tasted . And their target market is Hong Kong citizen, especial is Chinese . Cafe de Coral is very common in Hong Kong , the branches of Cafe de Coral are throughout Hong Kong. Moreover, the cost of catering is very cheap and the waiting time of foods is short. It attracts a lot of students and working people to dinning here. The case of complaint and the element of procedural and personal side of customer serviceIn this article, Miss Tse who ordered a hot pot meal in Cafe de Coral. When she got the meal after twenty minutes, around ten cockroaches run outside from the hot pot. Miss Tse and her family even the other costumers were so scared and felt disgusted immediately. After that, Miss Tse complained to the manager for providing the â€Å"cockroaches† hot pot but the manager said that he or she only changed it to a new one. Also, the manager did not apologize to her. Fin ally, Miss Tse got the drawback and complained the Cafe de Coral restaurant through Food and Environmental Hygiene Department.There are some causes of the customer complaint. Firstly, around ten cockroaches run outside from the hot pot. This cause is reflected this Cafe de Coral restaurant in North Point is very dirty. Secondly, the manager did not apologize to Miss Tse. The manager did not respect the customer obviously and Miss Tse so angry about that. In this case, there are some elements of procedural sides of customer service were not fulfilled by the concerned service provider. The element of timeliness was not fulfilled. Miss Tse waited twenty minutes for the meal, also not many costumers in this restaurant.The service of this restaurant cannot satisfy the customer expectation. In quick service restaurant, efficient service is essential. Unfortunately, this fast-food restaurant cannot provide a quick service to Miss Tse. There is no reason that this restaurant provide the foo d slowly. Because the staffs were not busy in that time so they should provide the food in standard time. The element of anticipation was not fulfilled. Miss Tse felt disgusted after many cockroaches run outside from the hot pot. The manager should apologize to Miss Tse but he or she did not say that.The manager did not be one step ahead of Miss Tse’s needs because Miss Tse expects that the manager apologize to her and helped her to move out the hot pot but the manager did not meet her expectation. The element of communication was not fulfilled. The manager did not ask Miss Tse some question and try to improve the service. For example, the manager did not comfort Miss Tse and also asked her that did she need some help so Miss Tse has emotional block toward the manager like anger. Moreover, the manager failed to seek and encourage the feedback.For example, the manager did not ask anything before Miss Tse left. The manager did not seek any improve feedback from Miss Tse. There are 7 points about the personal dimension: attitude of body language, tone of voice, selling skill, attentiveness, guidance and product knowledge. In this case, there are some elements of personal side of customer service were not fulfilled by concerned service provider. Firstly, there is a poor attitude of the manager. When Miss Tse call the manager to handle this case, but the manager say that she can only change the hot pot and take away the pot.It is no any apologize to Miss Tse. It is very important that the restaurant should provide the clean food to the customers. Unfortunately, they cannot do this principle. Also, when the customers complained to the restaurant, they had a poor attitude to face Miss Tse. The manager took away the hot pot without any apologize. The manager was very not respect to Miss Tse. Moreover, after Miss Tse complained the hot pot was having ten cockroaches, the manager just said that he or she had changed a new hot pot to you. The manager spoke to Miss Tse with poor tone of voice.The manager should apologize to Miss Tse with appropriate tone of voice but the manager did not do that. The manager did not feel sorry for Miss Tse and the manager did not treat Miss Tse as a loyalty costumer. Finally, the manager did not take care the feeling of the Miss Tse and the other costumers. After Miss Tse saw many cockroaches run outside from the hot pot, she was already felt very nausea and disappointed with the restaurant. She expected the manager will apologize and gave her interpretation to calm down herself. But the manager cannot meet her expectation. And also did not give any feedback to Miss Tse.To fulfill the dissatisfied customers If we were the manager of the concerned organization, we would follow some steps below. There is complaint in the company. We need to turn the dissatisfy customers to become satisfied ones, or even motivate them to become loyal customers. Since the poor customers services will bring lots of negative effects to the company. Customers will share their experiences to their family and friends. Lastly, company will be lost over 20% of their customers each year. That is important for the company to act how to dispose the complaint. Now, there are some points to dispose the complaint.The first one, we need to express concern about the complaint. We would like to introduce ourselves . And then invite them to the place where are away from the restaurant. Avoid affect other customers. Next point, we should listen to the customer what they are happen. To the time, we should keep calm and don’t interrupt the customer’s speech. We also observe the customer’s emotional. Such as, we should observe at their body language and tone. The important the think that is we also need to down the notes for dispose the problem before. The second one, we need to confirm that we should understand the problems of the complaint.We should repeat, their speech to exhibit we understand. For exampl e, Miss, there are many cockroaches came out from the pot’s edge, right? In this part, we should be politely to settle her angry, and this is repeat question skill. It can avoid for misunderstand problem. The third one, we need to act consensus with customer. This means that we should be advice some solution which is agreement of customer. Such us, we give them some money for apologize and give them some coupons for buy food after. And then, we promise that we will as soon as possible to solve.If the customers do not agree with our suggestion, we will have further discussion with customer. We will seek the best solution to deal with the problems. Lastly, we need to solve the problems quickly. We should set the times to deal with the problems. For examples, we need to solve the problems less than 5 day. And then, we should review this problem with all the staff. Finally, we try our best to advice this problem will happen at next time, and give a high-quality service and produc t. To sum up, we need to group moment of truth. We should turn the unfavorable time to become favorable time.Also, we create a favorable time to increase company’s sales and create after moment, of truth to keep the customers. Since, moments of truth will affect company’s development after, so that it is important to the company. Conclusion To conclude, dispose the complaint of costumer efficiently is the responsible of the service provider so that the service provider can improve their service quality and the tackle the main problem of the costumer. If the service provider improve their service quality and establish word of mouth among the costumer, the costumer will be satisfied by the good service and turn the costumer become a loyalty one.

Disintegration of the Nuclear Family Essay

Social scientists have noticed that the concept of the family has changed in the past 40 years, and this has led some to comment on the ‘disintegration of the nuclear family’. Do you agree with the claim that the nuclear family unit is breaking down? The conventional nuclear family model, Murdock first spoke of, which entails the father as the employed bread winner and the wife as the stay at home housewife and mother looking after their children. This early idealistic model of the stable family life has changed and evolved. Some of these contributing factors that may have changed the family dynamics are, equality between men and women, the loss of religious influence over the traditional marriage, the accepted lifestyle of same sexed families, the increasing number of sole parents as well as blended families have diversely changed the way society sees the evolving complexities of the family unit. This essay aims to show that the traditional nuclear family unit has not disintegrated, but has evolved. The phrase the nuclear family was first used by Murdock in 1949 , in that time, most family units resembled what he referred as both sexed adults in a socially approved sexual cohabiting marriage with children that were biological or adopted (Murdock, 1949, p 1). Within the boundaries of the nuclear family, some parents found it a haven, where defined rules and standards were adhered to. Children thrived on the security and constant attention of the availability of their mother to drive them to soccer or ballet practise. Fathers had a defined role as the breadwinner, the head of the household. However to some, they found the nuclear family structure to be bounding, confining and demeaning. Mothers were discouraged from working, fathers were overburdened with the demands of being the sole breadwinner, parents who were unhappily married were ‘compelled to stayed together, â€Å"for the sake of the children† and to avoid the stigma of divorce’ (Elkind, 1994, p.8). Si nce equality for women in education and in the work force, women are staying in workforce longer and combining career with motherhood. Compared to forty years ago, where women were seen in gender specific jobs, including teachers, nurses, hairdressers, receptionists and retail sales. Today ‘women now occupying over a third of all manager positions, and growth areas in occupations requiring high skills and advanced education’ (Jericho G, 2012). According to Edger, maternity leave, child care and return to paid workforce are readily available to today’s mothers (Edger, 2005, p 36). The post modern family have what Elkind observes that couples marry later, and have fewer children. Although economically it is beneficial if both parents are working. (Edger, 2005, p10). In the post modern family, the gender roles have changed. (Holmes, Hughes, Julian, 2003, p.284). Most modern women in Western cultures are now looking for relationships where they are in a partnership with household chores and child raising being shared. Has religion lost its influence over the traditional marriage? According a Sydney Herald article, ‘ the divorce rate is four hundred percent greater then forty years ago, that more young couples are rejecting marriage’ preferring a de facto relationship. (Maley, 2003, p.13). The Catholic Church has also seen some decline in marriages. In Pope Francis’ recent speech, ‘The family is important, and it is necessary for the survival of humanity. Without the family, the cultural survival of the human race would be at risk. The family, whether we like it or not, is the foundation†¦Today, there are those who say that marriage is out of fashion. Is it out of fashion?†¦ many preach the importance of ‘enjoying’ the moment. They say that it is not worth making a life-long commitment, making a definitive decision †¦ because we do not know what tomorrow will bring. I ask you, instead, to be revolutionaries,†¦I am asking you to rebel agains t this culture that sees everything as temporary and that ultimately believes you are incapable of responsibility, that believes you are incapable of true love’ (Pope Francis, 2013) Along with religious factors, same- sexed families have diversely changed. According to Australian Bureau of Statistics it revealed that 33,700 Australian couples are living together in a same-sex relationship, with 17,600 male couples and 16,100 female couples. There are almost twice as many children living in same-sex couple families as there were in 2001, with most of these children living in female same-sex couple families. Figures showed 6300 children are living in same-sex couple families from 2011, up from 3400 in 2001. With the availability of modern science, sperm donors, in vitro fertilisation, surrogacy and the availability to adopt or foster a child gives the same-sex family opportunity to increase their family of two, to three or more. The report also ‘unveiled a trend against traditional housework gender roles, with cooking, cleaning and laundry responsibilities more evenly shared in same-sex couples, unlike opposite-sex couples where women tend to do more than men’ (Wright J. 2013). Sole parenting along with same sex families has become a common evolvement. Either by choice, necessity, death of spouse or divorce are now an accepted commonality compared to forty years ago. Although ‘Sole parents have to battle with the emotional and physical stress of juggling family responsibilities and work’, the dependency of local community support systems coincide with the ‘ability to work is dependant on access to non-parental child care, after-school care, (and) a job in the local neighbourhood’ (Edger, 2005, p.11) for a flexible, family friendly workplace. A blended family is the new formation of a previous disintegrated family unit. According to Holmes, Hughes and Julian, a couple starts as a family that grows to include children, who then have their own offspring. ‘If you include a divorce in this picture, new partners, step-parents, step-siblings and half-brothers and -sisters, you can see the boundaries of the family becoming more fluid.’ (Holmes. D/ Hughes. K / Julian. R, 2003, p. 282). Many of today’s families are made up of these blended families, step and half family members, foster, adopted and extended multi-generation non blood related family members. As a result the family unit is still alive and thriving, however it has grown and become more diverse in its members. In conclusion, it is clear that the nuclear family unit has not disintegrated, but has changed and evolved with the times and improved women’s rights. In particular to family diversity, reflecting in the growing freedom and acceptability of different lifestyles. Those relationships could have a fluid tenure, where individuals may form a family for a time, then go on to form new family ties and connections blending in numerous connections that may make up a modern family. References Chadwick V, 2013, Tick for same-sex marriages ,The Age, Victoria Australia, viewed on 14 August 2013. Elkind D, Kappan P. D, 1995, School and family in the post-modern world, p. 8-14. Elkind D, 1994, Ties that stress: The new family imbalance, Harvard College, United states of America, Pg. 1-4. Edger D, 2005, The war over work: the future of work and family, Melbourne University Press, Australia. Jericho G, 2012, Changing role of women in the workplace, The Drum tv, viewed on 14 August 2013, www.abc.net.au. Maley B, 2003, The Sydney Morning Herald comment section, Sydney. Murdock G.P, 1949, Social Structure, The Macmillan Company, New York. Pope Francis, 2013, Marriage and family from the world youth day speech, viewed 8 August 13 www.marriageuniqueforareason.org/-about-marriage-and-the-family-from-world-youth-day, Rio de Janeiro, South America. Wright J, 2013, Number of children with same-sex parents soars, The Age, Victoria, viewed on 14 August 2013, www.theage.com.au.

Proposals Relation to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania Essay

In the â€Å"Proposals Relation to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,† 1749, Benjamin Franklin reconciled public service, the benefits of classical learning, and the necessity of practical training for young people in the colony. Mr. Franklin discussed that knowledge helps to give honor. Not just honor to yourself for knowing what you are doing and talking about but, also an honor for your country to represent them if you were to become a part of office and have to communicate with others outside of country. Not even just to be in office but, to also become a minister or priest for a religion thanks to the studies of religious and civil morality. Thanks to their knowledge the academy will give to them they will be able to help their country in not just honoring them but, helping the citizens in the country. Due to their knowledge they will be able to give the citizens fair amounts of income, fair prices for taxes, and prayers. The men that will have this knowledge will not only be from a rich background with an abundance of money and high class families. As well as, poor background young men with little money and probably no family at all have a chance to receive an education and help their country. Then after one school is built to help young men, more and more can be built by other men with knowledge and help others get the education they once received. In this academy the students will learn similar subjects to what the modern day student learns today. Students will be taught the English language by reading some of the best authors in the 1700’s. There was Tillotson, Pope, Cato’s Letters, and etc. hould be some of the classics read. They will be taught to write with neat handwriting, swift drawing of arithmetic, accounts†¦ geometry, and astronomy. All of these can count as basic classes to help with any future job the student might want to have/achieve when they graduate. These basic classes can also help with everyday jobs, for example, directions in the stars while on a journey in the ocean or lost in the fore st (science), buying or trading goods for money (math), or even just being able to read and write a form of a constitution or charter (grammar). Benjamin Franklin also states â€Å"But art is long, and their time is short. † in paragraph 8 of â€Å"Proposals Relation to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,† 1749. In the passage, the author also talks of the necessities of practical training which has to do with knowing how to handle and work on machines and the histories on machine. Something that will be taught is the machines used in wars. Men can learn to make these machines and use them. Then they can improve them in ways to make them better so they can be used when needed. The knowledge of machines can help those week men that cannot do much physical work can invent new machines to reduce labor for all men and slaves. Manufacturing companies will begin to grow in ways of money and making more of what they sell. Their money will flourish and the companies will gain power. Once the companies grow, trade will also increase which can make that country gain more money also. That is when math and grammar also come in handy. Manufacturing companies will not only flourish but, farming as well because of the farming technique they give you, to plant cash crops and even plant your own foods to eat at home. Benjamin Franklin put to rights that public service, the benefits of classical learning, and the necessity of practical training for young men in the colonies by giving them knowledge to honor and help themselves and country. Next, the students learning the basics will help with future jobs and everyday lives. Lastly, the men learn to use and invent machines by learning their histories and how they were used. These arguments should make anyone want to open up an academy and teach young men.

Conflict Resolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Conflict Resolution - Essay Example   My main means of relieving stress is through singing. Therefore, during tense situations, I sing, thus engaging my mind in an activity. b). Recognize and manage emotions- when faced with a conflict, I recognize and understand my emotions as well as emotions from other people. This assists me in ensuring I communicate effectively and appropriately thereby, smoothing over disagreements (Segal, Boose, & Smith, 2013). Moreover, I am strongly connected to my feelings and therefore, have the ability to face and tackle differences arising at home, work, or any social place. c) Improvement on nonverbal skills - when faced with conflict, I do pay close attention to the nonverbal signals of the other individual. This assists me in understanding statements from the person and thus, able me to respond in a suitable manner while getting to the base of the problem (Segal, Boose, & Smith, 2013). Moreover, I use a calm tone and show a concerned facial expression, which facilitates tension diffusion. d). Use of humor and play – during a conflict situation, I normally communicate in a humorous and playful manner and this minimizes confrontations, and thus resolve disagreements. Moreover, humor ensures that I communicate feelings and ideas that otherwise would be hard to express (Segal, Boose, & Smith, 2013). I agree to disagree with someone by first recognizing similar viewpoints and listening to his or her reasons for the viewpoints. Afterwards, I proceed to the points we disagree on. We engage in constructive arguments where both parties defend their views and perceptions and try to convince one another (Segal, Boose, & Smith, 2013). In case the person lacks strong and convincing points to defend his perception, I disagree with him and terminate the argument.   

Capitalism and Socialism Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Capitalism and Socialism - Assignment Example Brooking institutions researched and found out that income inequality in the year 2013 was rising to alarming rates and negatively affected the US social mobility (Nilufer 21-2). For about 30 years now the income disparity has been notably growing this is after some statics have been carried out. The richest that is 1% of the Americans have so much wealth as compared to the greatest of the poor that’s about 90%.this disparity is increasing now for about 25 years down the line (Ebenstein 12). This has not only affected the United States but nations around the world.Some of the reasons and evidences are discussed below. Education has to a great extent contributed to this income disparity, payment for the educated has been increasing since 1969 in every economic sector. This is because in America less skilled personnel are being dismissed from work because of high competition between businesses and also when businesses adopt new technologies the uneducated have no place which can suit them for they lack the required skills and knowledge. This creates a big gap between the poor and the rich. Class struggle has been one of the major reasons for the worsening of incomeinequality, the gap between the poor and the rich has been widening over the last three decades. ... In 2007 it rose to 24% but for the three decades it fell to 10%. A new system of taxation, unions being strengthened and moderation of the National Labour Board made the income of the low earners and those working to upgrade by reducing that of the highest earners, this policy lasted only for about three decades. In 2009 the income of middle class totaled to $49777 this is according to data collected during census, it then reduced by 4.2% in the years 2007 and 2009 (Ebenstein 29). Neoliberalism advocates that capital and labour which are some of the factors of production should receive payments which are worthwhile. Americans Keynesians support the neoliberal which states that one should be paid what they are worth. This has caused a lot of disparities in income distribution since people work at different rates and have different abilities hence giving out different results in their performances; this automatically leads to income inequality. Outsourcing can be defined as the process where a company works together with an outside company on contractual basis; this is preferred due to the low cost advantages. Most of the US companies have been out sourcing their products and hence gaining comparative advantages. A greater percentage of the investors in US have also engaged in businesses outside their country this has made them earn more than their fellow investors hence the reasons for the income inequalities (Ebenstein 71). Finally, the communal ideology has a role in the economic systems with respect to resource distribution. Ideology can mean beliefs, visions, objectives that can be set by a group of individual or an individual either

Evaluate the role of religion in the perpetuation and resolution of Research Paper

Evaluate the role of religion in the perpetuation and resolution of conflict - Research Paper Example ry religion has been a major engine to war, bloodshed, hatred and intolerance, in most case we have seen religion acting as an arbitrator between the conflicting parties. Therefore, to resolve conflicts between conflicting parties, religion has used empathy, openness to and even encouraged love for strangers, the suppression of unbridled ego and acquisitiveness, the communicative of human rights, unilateral gestures of forgiveness and humility, interpersonal repentance and acceptance of responsibility in past errors as a means of reconciliation and the drive of social justice. Religion has emphasized that people should view life as sacred and a gift offered to humankind by God. Therefore, each person should value others life by avoiding hurting the inner feeling either by messing with ones peace of heart by conflict or by murder. Many religion has encourage to practice the virtue of love to each other by practicing forgiveness in case one wrong the other instead of engaging themselves in a tug of war as a means of conflict resolution. Therefore, the sanctity of life should be observed at personal, social and political level. Religion has practiced the aspect of interiority by observing disciplines even in societies that are quite communally oriented. Through prayer, meditation, the experience of divine love, ecstasy, guilt and repentance all reflect the central importance of inner life of a person. When religion influences all these virtues in inner life of people it encourages people to have conflict resolution techniques. Conflicting parties through application of religious virtues are able to have self-control of their ego through the practice of love and kindness to each other. The role of empathy in western religion and traditions is critically essential. Religion has impacted the experience of empathy in terms of religious contexts to people either in terms of advocacy and long-term education or more directly in the workshop setting. For example, there is

Sadi Carnot & Heat Engine Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Sadi Carnot & Heat Engine - Research Paper Example Any device that converts heat into work by means of a cyclic process is called a heat engine. This is the principle under which physician Carnot developed the Carnot heat engine. A Carnot heat engine is a theoretical engine that functions on the Principle of Carnot cycle which is the process of how heat engine operates in terms of its efficiency and energy conversion. The Carnot model was first developed by Nicolas LÃ ©onard Sadi Carnot in the year 1824 and later advanced in terms of its mathematical computation. This resulted to a concept of entropy which is the conversion of energy from one level to another. The Carnot heat engine operates by transferring energy from two reservoirs i.e hot to cold region. The most efficient process for energy conversion that supersedes the second law of thermodynamics is the Carnot cycle. The cycle consists of isothermal phase and two adiabatic processes. According to the second law of thermodynamics, not all heat is used to do work in a machine hence the efficiency depends on the rate of heat conversion. Under the Carnot cycle, the efficiency of the machine is improved since it sets the limit value of heat energy that can be used to do work. In order for a machine to obtain the Carnot efficiency threshold, the processes involved in the heat engine cycle must be reversible and there should be no heat loss or change in entropy. Therefore in any given machine, the Carnot cycle is the core central function in the machine system. The P-V diagram below illustrates the operation of a Carnot engine. The concept of Carnot engines and Carnote cycle is dated way back in eighteenth century when it was first discovered by a scientist, Nicolas L. Sadi Carnote. Sir Carnote discovery was on how efficient can engines convert thermal energy to mechanical energy than the existing engines which were based on second law of thermodynamics. He discovered that "perfect

Electric Jacket Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Electric Jacket - Essay Example Additionally, the product is relatively low priced implying that most people will need it. This product will be available in a number of retail stores, which include cloth stores and sporting goods store. Sportsmen and women regularly visit sporting goods store, where they will easily notice this product. Different teams and learning institutions also visit sport goods stores implying that this is a strategic location for distributing the product to a large number of targeted audience. The product will also be available in some leading cloth distributor stores. These stores are significant since the product will reach out to a large number of households. The Internet is one media through which a new product can reach a large number of customers within a short period. The internet will make it much easier in distributing the new products since customers will easily identify the locations and addresses of stores distributing the product. The internet will also benefit the company when distribution costs through intermediary stores are reduced. Some customers will also have opportunities to buy the product directly from the

Health Promotion Proposal Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Health Promotion Proposal - Coursework Example They propose Nucleic acid amplification tests as preferred diagnostic tests performed on vaginal swabs or urine sample. They also recommend annual Chlamydia screening for all sexually active females under age 25. Department of Health: The New York State (2006) recommends the measures to prevent the spread of Chlamydia that include using a male or female condom, limiting number of sex partners and in case, one is exposed to infection he or she should avoid sexual contact and should visit the nearest a sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic, or doctor. It is advisable to bring sexual partner along with so that they can be examined for infection and if need be, given proper treatment. Chlamydia is a public health issue in Europe too because untreated Chlamydia may lead to poor reproductive outcomes in women. Chlamydia causes tubal infertility, ectopic pregnancy and pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Chlamydia is harmful to new born and may cause pneumonia and eye infections. It also facilitates the transmission of HIV. The cost of fertility treatment is high leading to in-vitro fertilization and tubal surgery. Controlling Chlamydia is challenging due to its asymptomatic nature; nevertheless, its prevention and control is possible through screening of target population and treatment (European Center for Disease Prevention and Control, 2009). The National Chlamydia Screening Program run by the department of health in the UK proposes to increase the testing regimen coverage from 25 % to 35 %. The evidence suggests that this will drastically reduce the prevalence of Chlamydia cases. Some estimates suggest that the program's past work has already reduced the prevalence by about 20 percent (Department of Health UK, 2011). Synthesis and Analysis Most literature across the globe agrees on certain aspects of Chlamydia infection. They all agree that its control is possible though concerted efforts are needed right from educating young adults on healthy sex activities; us ing male or female condom, especially when changing partners; and screening periodically the target population for infection. Screening is simple and can ascertain Chlamydia infection with reliability. Covering larger population for screening and treating them if found infected, can decrease the incidents of Chlamydia over time. Treatment is cost effective and the infected person needs to take medications only for a week or so to get completely rid of Chlamydia. The Theoretical Framework for Chlamydia Control It is important to note that currently, no vaccine is available to prevent Chlamydia infection. It is caused by bacteria called C. trachomatis and the most critical part is that it remains asymptomatic for months to years and thus infected person can transmit the disease without knowledge of anyone. Alternative ways of control are therefore necessary to prevent transmission of infection and sequelae. Screening for C. trachomatis in the target population becomes a necessary inte rvention to detect the infection. The theoretical framework for Chlamydia control thus lies within an ambit of widespread screening and subsequent treatment process through medications. Repeat Chlamydia infection may occur even after treatment process is over. Partner treatment, educating the patient and repeated testing become necessary

Physiology of Organ Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Physiology of Organ Systems - Essay Example The blood pressure of the arteries increases and decreases with each cycle or stage where the blood passes through the chambers of the heart. Blood enters the heart with a specific sequence or order (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2007). The heart also has four valves which control and manage the entry and exit of the blood into and out of the heart. The blood would enter the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cavae and the right atrium would contract and the tricuspid valve would open and allow blood to enter the right ventricle (NASA, 2007). As the right ventricle contracts, the tricuspid valve closes and simultaneously, the pulmonary valve opens and blood enters the pulmonary artery which brings the blood to the lungs where it is infused with oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide (Shibao, et.al., 2007). The blood then exits the lungs and enters the left atrium where it is pumped out into the different parts of the body. The blood vessel walls have l ayers of smooth muscle and such muscles as well as the heart muscles are regulated by the autonomic nervous system (Shibao, et.al., 2007). Where there is a decrease in the diameter of the blood vessel, the flow of the blood would be more difficult. The persistent decrease in diameter would increase the pressure needed to push the blood into the different cells of the body. The greater pressure is imposed on the heart which is forcing the blood into the different parts of the body (Lohmeier, et.al., 2004).... The blood would enter the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cavae and the right atrium would contract and the tricuspid valve would open and allow blood to enter the right ventricle (NASA, 2007). As the right ventricle contracts, the tricuspid valve closes and simultaneously, the pulmonary valve opens and blood enters the pulmonary artery which brings the blood to the lungs where it is infused with oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide (Shibao, et.al., 2007). The blood then exits the lungs and enters the left atrium where it is pumped out into the different parts of the body. The blood vessel walls have layers of smooth muscle and such muscles as well as the heart muscles are regulated by the autonomic nervous system (Shibao, et.al., 2007). Where there is a decrease in the diameter of the blood vessel, the flow of the blood would be more difficult. The persistent decrease in diameter would increase the pressure needed to push the blood into the different cells of the body. The greater pressure is imposed on the heart which is forcing the blood into the different parts of the body (Lohmeier, et.al., 2004). As the smooth muscles would relax, there is lesser resistance and therefore less pressure needed to maintain the blood flow rates. The autonomic nervous system regulates the diameter of the blood vessels (Lohmeier, et.al., 2004). It also regulates the heart rate, increasing or decreasing it where necessary. With these processes, the autonomic nervous system is able to manage blood pressure. Maintenance of continuous blood flow to the brain and the cells of the body are carried out by the â€Å"regulation of blood pressure by the autonomic nervous system† (NASA, 2007, p. 104). The brain is the receptor of data related to pressure exerted by the

Pride and Prejudice Essay Example for Free

Pride and Prejudice Essay Jane Austen’s novel Pride and Prejudice (1813) is believed to originate from the manuscript called First Impressions that have been written between 1796 and 1797. The initial title indicates that characters’ behavior and evaluations are influenced by their first impressions. The second title stresses the importance of such psychological traits and mechanisms as pride and prejudice. In a course of the novel personages change a lot so far as they understand that perfunctory attitudes and assessments are false when being devoid of knowledge of the context and understanding of an individual’s character. The present paper tackles upon analysis of Austen’s book as being researched through a lens of psychology. Contemporary science introduced the â€Å"social stereotypes† concept which significantly influences people’s interaction within a given social group. Among many other important contributions, the novel of interest teaches us to approach carefully decisions as related to our interpersonal acting and judgment of group members according to first impressions. The effects, dangers and consequences of premature evaluations as based on social stereotypes will be analysed with specific examples from the book. The novel under review is believed to be an example of psychological writing or novel of human relationships. As Sherry has acknowledged, the writer is always aware of â€Å"the presence of other individuals with whom it is either a duty or a pleasure to mix† (611). The very title of the book consists of two psychological concepts. The one of â€Å"pride† denotes a trait of character associated with high self-esteem. Another one of â€Å"prejudice† refers to a situation when a person makes decisions regardless of the context and relevant features of a case or individual. In regard to the issue of Austen’s psychologism, critic Bloom has cited Ian Watt, an important theorist of literature from Stanford University. The latter has claimed Austen to be the commenting narrator† in the sense that her â€Å"analyses of †¦ characters and their states of mind, and her ironical juxtaposition of motive and situation †¦ do not seem to come from an intrusive author but rather from some august and impersonal spirit of social and psychological understanding† (39). In his turn, another literary critic, Ryan, has defined Austen’s psychologism as an â€Å"experiment in schematic psychology† (33). The latter definition with its emphasis on the writer’s schematism in delineating people’s behavioral patterns and analyzing their internal and external drives seems to be really accurate, given the recent developments in psychological science. Just think of the plain statistics: in Austen’s text, there are 48 references to the phenomenon of â€Å"pride,† which is accessible through direct observation, but there are only 8 cases of mentioning the phenomenon of â€Å"prejudice,† which requires a deeper understanding of psychological mechanisms and social contexts. It seems that the writer lacks instruments and concepts to analyze human behavior at a deeper level but this is not Austen’s fault. Being unaware of any of the recent theories of social sciences, she nevertheless hits the very essence of the process that would later be called â€Å"social stereotyping. † Let us prove this hypothesis on the example of the â€Å"pride† concept. First time it is explained in Chapter 5 by Mary Bennet, the most earnest of the Bennets, who is interested in social theory. Upon the ball at which the local society has got acquainted with Fitzwilliam Darcy, the rich and handsome gentleman from London, women start discussing the newcomer and label him as being â€Å"eat up with pride† (Austen 25). On occasion, Mary has demonstrated her education, saying: Pride is a very common failing†¦ human nature is particularly prone to it, and †¦ there are very few of us who do not cherish a feeling of self-complacency on the score of some quality or other, real or imaginary. Vanity and pride are different things, though the words are often used synonymously. A person may be proud without being vain. Pride relates more to our opinion of ourselves, vanity to what we would have others think of us. (ibid. ) The validity of Mary’s (i. e. , Austen’s) remark has been acknowledged many decades afterwards by contemporary psychologists including Hunyady and Ryan. Whereas Mary Bennet operates the phrase â€Å"opinion of ourselves,† when referring to characteristics ascribed to the self by an individual, Ryan uses the term â€Å"self-ratings† (191), and Hunyady employs the term â€Å"self-image† (189). Both Mary (i. e. Austen) and modern scientists are aware of the complexity of perceptions as featured by the subject and members of the group. To proceed with comparison, whereas in the novel there is made a distinction between â€Å"pride† as a self-rating and â€Å"vanity† as the rating imposed by the community, Ryan speaks about the concept of â€Å"social stereotype. † The psychologist has ac knowledged that it consists of the two basic elements: â€Å"the perceived stereotypicality of a group (i. e. , the perceived extremity of the central tendency) and the perceived dispersion, or diversity, of group members† (191). This point is not Ryan’s unique invention. On the same issue, another social scientist, Hunyady, has stressed the duality of social processes as occurring both within the specific group and outside it. Observing the complexity of relationships in dynamic social contexts, Hunyady has emphasized the following: †¦ [T]he categories of persons and the related stereotypes do not stand on their own but rather are components of some kind of a system. †¦ [S]tereotypes are the mosaic pieces of a picture formed of the whole society. One not only gets to know his individual companions or groups of his companions but also tries to get a comprehensive view of the entire human world and of society, in which he and his fellows have a place and a more or less stable environment. (189) In other words, psychologists argue that in a process of exhibiting the new object to the social group, the behavior of group members in regard to this object is predicted by realistic group conflict theory and social cognition theories of social categorization. Every subject unit of the group obeys to a certain set of normative regulations. An individual does not function on his/her own but clearly fits into this or that community. Subsequently and inevitably, a person evaluates oneself according to the degree of membership, or the extent to which his/her ratings of the self, the group and social processes conform to the summated ratings of other people belonging to that group. As Ryan has indicated, there is a â€Å"central tendency,† or the core perception of the phenomenon that is agreed upon by all group members as being guided by a set of shared norms, and there are also deviations from the mainstream. The latter are allowed by those group subjects who are less inclined to stereotype the phenomena of life due to their intellect and character. Taking this conceptual framework into consideration, we should admit that the stages of the social stereotyping process are brilliantly revealed by Austen in Pride and Prejudice, albeit the narrator employs a simple, non-scientific language. There is a specific group in the countryside 19th century England whose members share the common regulations concerning people and events. The highest value is attributed to the upper class membership, wealth, and appearance. There is â€Å"the aura of a small, enclosed community of talking, visiting, and company† (Sherry 611) that confines every person to the specific role and place. In this social atmosphere, first impressions, which are based on the abovementioned features of appearance and sweet manners (i. e. , those which do not deviate from the central tendency), become the long-lasting tags for an individual. It is extremely difficult to overcome the sustainability of these immediately formed stereotypes. Since the very moment of his entry to the ball room, Fitzwilliam Darcy drew the group’s attention. He is a new person to the community, and at first sight he seems to be in accord with the shared set of norms so far as the man is high, good-looking and enjoys a substantial income of ten thousand a year. However, conforming to the stereotype of a â€Å"good man† in the sense of outlook and social position, Darcy becomes a breacher of discipline in terms of his relationships with other group members. Darcy is claimed â€Å"to be proud; to be above his company, and above being pleased; and not all his large estate in Derbyshire could then save him from having a most forbidding, disagreeable countenance† (Austen 14). The reason for such a shift in attitudes is the man’s denial of the spirit of companionship that is somewhat more important to the community than the characteristics of its individual subjects, however handsome and wealthy they are. The clue to understanding the first impression of Darcy is provided in the scene where young women are discussing him after the ball. Charlotte Lucas, the best friend of the second Bennets daughters Elizabeth, who is the main female personage of the story, justifies Darcy by the fact that his high self-rating is understandable so far as he possesses every feature admired within the group: His pride does not offend me so much as pride often does, because there is an excuse for it. One cannot wonder that so very fine a young man, with family, fortune, everything in his favour, should think highly of himself. If I may so express it, he has a right to be proud. (Austen 25) In other words, this is not the man’s high self-esteem that hurts the senses of the locals. His drawback tackles upon not the pardonable attitude of pride but the regrettable vanity, or the overt negligence of the shared persuasion that the given social group is the best environment for any dignified individual. Regarding the eagerness to enter the local community and borrow its toolkit of stereotypes, Darcy represents a sharp contrast to an amiable young officer, Mr. Wickham. The latter is as handsome as the former but is more eagerly accepted by the group so far as he gladly steps into social intercourses with every member of the circle. As the personage himself has confessed, â€Å"I have been a disappointed man, and my spirits will not bear solitude. I must have employment and society† (Austen 98). This weakness and lack of the so to say inner rod is initially perceived as a virtue by group members. Austen’s mastery is made evident in the scenes documenting the usual intercourse between group members so that the reader can get impression of the relationships permeating the group atmosphere and learn the principles which back up the social stereotypes of that time. To make a clue to her heroes’ characters, the writer provides short explanations of the people’s psychological background. People and events are evaluated by many people who exchange remarks on the issue of interest, although Austen takes a particular interest in the phenomena as perceived through the eyes of Elizabeth Bennet. This is a beautiful and intelligent young lady of 20 years old who displays â€Å"a lively, playful disposition, which delighted in anything ridiculous† (Austen 16). She deserves the reader’s appreciation, demonstrating â€Å"more quickness of observation and less pliancy of temper than her sister, and †¦ a judgement too unassailed by any attention to herself† (Austen 20). Due to her intellect and sociable yet a bit absent-minded character, Elizabeth exhibits the perfect ability to deviate from the central tendency in her assessments and evaluations of life matters. The second of Bennet’s daughters is obviously the only group member who could have appreciated Darcy’s ability to let the world slide, if not for the case of personal injustice. She cannot forget the pain that has been caused to her own self-esteem. The thing is that Elizabeth has heard the handsome newcomer admitting that she is not enough beautiful to dance with. The remark is enough for the young lady to start detesting the offender to her pride. As Elizabeth herself has stated, â€Å"I could easily forgive his pride, if he had not mortified mine† (Austen 25). The first impression of Darcy’s rudeness at the ball is driven by the clash of self-esteems, and negative perceptions color the young lady’s further conceptualization of the hero up to the very moment when he reveals his love toward her in Chapter 34. The futility of first impressions is demonstrated through the description of Elizabeth’s relationships with Darcy and Wickham as well as her understanding of Bingley’s character. As it has been stated earlier, all three men fit the shared group’s concept of â€Å"an appropriate gentleman† in terms of their looks and wealth, albeit Wickham is not as rich as the other two men and pretends to be a man who is unjustly insulted. He pretends to be modest and good-hearted when he says, â€Å"I have no right to give my opinion† or â€Å"I am not qualified to form one† (Austen 96) in regard to Darcy’s background, and immediately afterwards he does his best to ruin Fitzwilliam’s reputation. All Wickham’s envy of Darcy is demonstrated in the following characterization: â€Å"The world is blinded by his fortune and consequence, or frightened by his high and imposing manners, and sees him only as he chooses to be seen† (Austen 97). The remark provides the reader with a hint concerning Darcy’s manner of functioning within the upper class social circle. Among this threesome with Bingley being superficial and Wickham being villainous, Darcy is the only person to be criticized for the lack of that â€Å"agreeable manner† that Wickham demonstrates speaking even about insignificant matters. The intelligent and kind-hearted Lizzy cannot but â€Å"feel that the commonest, dullest, most threadbare topic might be rendered interesting by the skill of the speaker† (Austen 94) when she socialized with Wickham, whereas Darcy’s brisk and unwilling manner of speaking makes the young lady feel uncomfortable. This is true that being compared to his friend Bingley or his rivalry Wickham, Darcy is not the object to readily fall in love and admiration with. He dances only with the two selected ladies and neglects the rest. This manner is regarded an offense to the aura of amiability, and he abstains from the social chit-chat. Besides this gentleman directly expresses his opinions of other people instead of camouflaging them under the veil of behind-the-back gossip. This personage makes it too clear that the local society is â€Å"a collection of people in whom there was little beauty and no fashion, for none of whom he had felt the smallest interest, and from none received either attention or pleasure† (Austen 22). He reveals indignation, boredom, or sarcasm in the situations when other men pretend to be pleased and amused. Judging from first impressions, Charles Bingley is more favored by the locals since he treats them as the nicest people he has ever met. In his turn, Wickham’s reputation is based on the assumption that Darcy has devoid him of wealth, which puts the two men in the positions of a victim and an offender. This is only throughout a course of the plot development that the narrator makes clear that Bingley’s sociality is explained by superficiality, and Wickham is a cheater who has attempted to seduce Darcy’s younger sister. Utilizing the theories of social categorization, one may say that Wickham has been admitted to the local group more easily than Darcy because the former has readily belittled his self-rating in public conversations and demonstrated the greater extent of willingness to share the pre-established social regulations of the given group. Being compared to the sweet Mr. Bingley’s behavior, Darcy’s behavioral pattern is rooted in the wider cognitive scope and finer spiritual development. The latter is strong enough to disregard the central tendency as it exists in the given group. Being cleverer than his friend Mr. Bingley, who has managed to become the crowd puller, Darcy falls into the sin that is not pride per se but rather vanity. The local society would gladly accept him as the most important person if he had been willing to put himself on one leg so to say with other group members. It is only in Chapter 10 when the narrator lets readers learn more about Darcy’s understanding of pride and related concepts. In public opinion, his high self-esteem is a manifestation of haughtiness, whereas Wickham’s seemingly low self-rating is a sign of appropriateness as shown through humility. In his turn, Darcy detests â€Å"the appearance of humility† that is genuinely the â€Å"carelessness of opinion, and sometimes an indirect boast† (Austen 60). Contemporary psychologists would call Darcy’s conceptualizations of â€Å"pride,† â€Å"humility,† and â€Å"boast† as being driven by functional utility of human behavior. According to this hero, this is inappropriate to put down one’s self-esteem just for the sake of being praised by other group members. Throughout the novel this personage remains the vivid example of a person who shares certain believes common to the central tendency of stereotypicality but reveals energy to display also diversity in his ratings of the self and other people. The complexity and dynamism of social stereotypes is shown through Darcy’s and Elizabeth’s attitudes to each other. Whereas Lizzy’s stereotypes in regard to the man remain sort of frozen for a while under the man’s â€Å"satirical eye† (Austen 30), Darcy is being engaged into the fast proceeding process, in a course of which he changes the initial perception of the young lady. The narrator specifies Darcy’s turn toward re-evaluating Lizzy Bennet as follows: But no sooner had he made it clear to himself and his friends that she hardly had a good feature in her face, than he began to find it was rendered uncommonly intelligent by the beautiful expression of her dark eyes. To this discovery succeeded some others equally mortifying. Though he had detected with a critical eye more than one failure of perfect symmetry in her form, he was forced to acknowledge her figure to be light and pleasing; and in spite of his asserting that her manners were not those of the fashionable world, he was caught by their easy playfulness. Austen 29) In other words, Darcy’s first rejection of the second daughter of Bennets has been caused by the incongruity between Elizabeth’s outlook and his own classical perception of beauty as a reckless symmetry of forms and elements. It is clear that the gentleman has initially been blinded by both his personal and group set of stereotypes that required women to conform to certain standards. Elizabeth does not seem to be classically beautiful, and her gaiety during the first meeting has poked the man away as a manifestation of social inappropriateness.

Types of damages Essay Example for Free

Types of damages Essay According to the S. 74 damages which is the cash compensation by a court or another’s fault or negligence in suffering, the rules for damages can and frequently do vary based on the type of claim which is presented. There are many types of damages. Special damages are those which actually were caused by the injury and include medical and hospital bills, ambulance charges, loss of wages, property repair or replacement costs, or loss of money due on a contract. There are presumed to be a result of the other partys actions is general damages, but are subjective both in nature and determination of value of damages. These damages include distress, future problems of our life and crippling effect of an injury, loss of ability to perform various acts, shortening of life span, mental anguish, loss of companionship, loss of reputation, humiliation from scars, loss of anticipated business and other harm. The third damage is exemplary damages which combines punishment and the setting of public example. Punitive damages may be awarded when the defendant acted in a malicious, violent, oppressive, fraudulent, wanton, or grossly reckless way in causing the special and general damages to the plaintiff. On occasion punitive damages can be greater than the actual damages. Although the innocent asked for compensation, they are seldom awarded. Nominal damages are those given when the actual harm is minor and an award is warranted under the circumstances. For example, the most famous case was when Winston Churchill was awarded a shilling against author Louis Adamic who had written that the British Prime Minister had been drunk at a dinner at the White House. Liquidated damages are those pre-set by the parties in a contract to be awarded in case one party defaults as in breach of contract. This is similar to the measure of damages payable under common law as established in the case of Hadley v Baxendale (1854). In Tham Cheow Toh1, the appellant sold a metal melting furnace to the respondent. The appellants undertaking to the respondent that the melting furnace would have a temperature of no lower than 2,600 degrees F was not satisfied. The respondent alleged that the appellant had breached the contract and claimed damages of RM29,301. 38. The trial judge held that the melting furnace did not meet with the specifications thereby constituting a breach of the condition of the contract. A sum of RM7,501. 8 was awarded as damages for loss of profits. Abdul Hamid J: In the circumstances, I am of the view that the failure on the part of the defendants to supply a furnace which would meet the required temperature, constituted a breach of the condition of the contract entitling the plaintiffs to treat such breach as a breach of warranty. For the reasons which I have stated above, it is my judgment that the defendants are liable for the breach of the condition of the agreement and the plaintiffs clai m should therefore succeed. The Federal Court said that it is true that the amount awarded in this case was merely conjectural but there was at least some evidence before the court which might support the award. It is because that the case fell within the provisions of s 74(1) of the Contracts (Malay States) Ordinance, that is, when damages arising were such as might reasonably be supposed to have been in the contemplation of both parties at the time they made the contract, as the probable result of the breach of it. This is indeed the principle in Hadley v Baxendale (1854) . Case: Aruna Mills Ltd v Dhanrajmal Gobindram [1968] In Aruna Mills Ltd v Dhanrajmal Gobindram2, goods were to be shipped from India and the contract expressly stated that the buyers would take the risk of any devaluation of the rupee. The rupee was devalued and the price payable by the buyers was increased accordingly. However, a portion of that increase arose as a result of late shipment by the sellers, and it was held that the resultant loss could be recovered by the buyers. The ‘devaluation’ clause demonstrated that the parties had turned their minds to the impact of exchange losses. Lord Reid observed: â€Å"I am satisfied that the court [in Hadley v Baxendale] did not intend that every type of damage which was reasonably foreseeable by the parties when the contract was made should either be considered as arising naturally, in the usual course of things, or be supposed to have been in the contemplation of the parties. Indeed the decision makes it clear that a type of damage which was plainly foreseeable as a real possibility but which would only occur in a small minority of cases cannot be regarded as arising in the usual course of things or be supposed to have been in the contemplation of the parties: the parties are not supposed to contemplate as grounds for the recovery of damage any type of loss or damage which on the knowledge available to the defendant would appear to him as only likely to occur in a small minority of cases. In cases like Hadley v Baxendale or the present case it is not enough that in fact the plaintiff’s loss was directly caused by the defendant’s breach of contract. It clearly was so caused in both. The crucial question is whether, on the information available to the defendant when the contract was made, he should, or the reasonable man in his position would, have realized that such loss was sufficiently likely to result from the breach of contract to make it proper to hold that the loss flowed naturally from the breach or that loss of that kind should have been within his contemplation. Here, Lord Reid saw the law as applying an objective test, and one which reflects the realities of the business transaction entered into by the contracting parties. In the light of the decision of our court the law on remoteness of damage in contract is therefore as laid down in Hadley v Baxendale (1854) and restated in Victoria Laundry [1949] s 74 which provides that compensation is not to be given for any remote or indirect loss sustained is superfluous in view of the limits. Case: Tan Chin Kim Sawmill Factory Sdn Bhd v Lindeteves-Jacoberg (M) Sdn Bhd3 [1982] In Tan Chin Kim Sawmill, it is clear from these three clauses and from the terms contained in MIMB’s letter dated 2 June 1975, which terms were accepted by both the appellant and the respondent that the intention of the parties was that MIMB was to be compensated not only for all sums of money which would become due and payable by the appellant but also for â€Å"all losses, damages costs and expenses† suffered by MIMB. The letter and these three clauses by stipulating that sums other than rentals due are recoverable therefore make the financing case inapplicable to the case under the present appeal, and as such the amount of $527,039. 37 which the respondent paid as a cash price settlement for the equipment on 11 February 1977 was in fact the amount which the appellant itself was bound to pay under the lease agreement. In fact the appellant was informed of this fact by MIMB in its letter to the appellant dated 22 March 1976 and the respondent was offered back the equipment on the stated cash price settlement only in the event that the appellant was unable to pay MIMB the said cash price settlement by 1 April 1976. Abdoolcader J:  In the circumstances on a consideration of the evidence adduced both oral and documentary and for the reasons I have stated, I find no substance whatsoever in the contention of the plaintiffs that the first plaintiff was at any time the owner of the machinery in question or that the arrangement entered into to provide finance to the first plaintiff was otherwise than what the documents produced tales quales show it to be, namely, the provision of lease financing to the first plaintiff by the second defendant by way of a lease of the machinery to the former by the latter which had purchased it from the first defendant. The crux of the plaintiffs claim to the effect that the documents are a sham because they were a device to cover a transaction whereby goods were given as security for a loan must accordingly fail. Cadit quaestio, and it follows that the plaintiffs ancillary claims for damages and other relief must necessarily succumb, and it is perhaps only necessary for me to observe that in the matter of the plaintiffs claim for damages Mr. Rajah himself had to admit that the y have not satisfactorily proved every item of the damages sought. The Federal Court said that, in order to make a particular loss recoverable it is not necessary for the plaintiff to prove that the defendant could, as a reasonable man, foresee that a breach must necessarily result in that particular loss. Rescind S. 76 means that it is exercising the right to terminate the contract that communicated clearly by a party revocable contract. If the contract never existed, it is an irrevocable step that frees the other party as well from its contractual obligations. Rescission may be on mutual consent, by either party for reasonable cause such as a material misrepresentation. The second definition is unmaking of a contract by a court in the interests of justice. However, both parties are not possible to reinstate their original positions. Furthermore, rescind a contract defined as to affirm a contract void in its inception and to put an end so further defined as to terminate it and release parties from further obligations to each other and restore parties to relative positions which they would have occupied had no contract ever been made. Case: Lam Gow Anor V. Maju-Tekno Sdn Bhd Anor 4 [ 1994] In the present case, the plaintiffs had, on 27 June 1990 contracted to purchase land with a building thereon measuring 258 square meters. They did not discover that the said land only measured 193 square meters until July 1992. Immediately upon such discovery, they wrote to the defendant, complaining of the matter. The circumstances and the plaintiffs conduct indicate that there was no acceptance of the reduction in the size of the land by the plaintiffs. Ranita Hussein JC: â€Å"In my view, the reduction by 25. 19% in the size of the land alone can be regarded as having transformed the subject matter of the sale into one which the purchasers would not have purchased had they known of the true position at the time of the signing of the agreement. In other words, the difference aforesaid would not give the purchasers substantially what they bargained for. † For the reason above, I find that the plaintiffs have the right to rescission. Judgment is given to the plaintiffs for rescission and it is ordered that the sum of RM14,659 paid by the plaintiffs to the defendants be refunded with interest at the rate of 8% and costs. The interest is, as agreed by the parties, to take effect from 3 January 1991 to date of realization. It is also ordered that the plaintiffs be entitled to damages on account of the non fulfillment of the agreement, the amount of such damages to be assessed by the senior assistant registrar. The Federal Court said that the plaintiffs for rescission and it is ordered that the sum of RM14,659 amount paid by the plaintiffs to the defendants be refunded with interest at the rate of 8% and costs. The interest is, as agreed by the parties, to take effect from 3 January 1991 to date of realization. It is because that the plaintiffs be entitled to damages on account of the non fulfillment of the agreement, the amount of such damages to be assessed by the senior assistant registrar.

Advantages Of The Issues Of Bonus Shares Finance Essay

Advantages Of The Issues Of Bonus Shares Finance Essay The term bonus issue also called as stock dividend means an extra dividend paid to shareholders in a company from additional profits. When large fund gets accumulated out of profits of a company much beyond its expectations and needs, the companys directors may decide to share out a part of it among the existent shareholders of company in the form of bonus. Bonus can be paid in two forms either in cash or in form of shares. The company pays cash bonus when it gains large amount of profits as well as cash to pay dividend. But many a times, it happens that a company is not in a position to pay bonus in cash though it has enough amounts of profits because of poor cash position or because of its unfavorable effects on the working capital of the company. In such a situation, the company pays a bonus to its shareholders in the form of shares; a free share thus issued is known as a bonus share. A bonus share is a free share of stock given to current/existing shareholders in a company, based upon the number of shares that the shareholder already owns at the time of announcement of the bonus. The important point here is, that the issue of bonus shares only increases the total number of shares issued and owned, but it does affect the value of the company at all. Certain classes of shares only are allowed to bonus issues and it depends on the constitutional documents of respected company. Bonus share is free share in fixed ratio to the shareholders. For example ABC ltd. issues bonus share in 1:1 ratio where the dividend is 20% and Rs.10.00 as face value dividend/share this means that the company will be giving Rs. 2 of dividend per share and with bonus share it goes double i.e. Rs. 4 as one free share is given to shareholder based upon the number of shares he/she already has. Sometimes a company may change the number of shares in issue by capitalizing its reserve. In other words, it can convert the right of the shareholders because each individual will hold the same proportion of the outstanding shares as before. Main reason for issuance is the price of the existing share has become unwieldy. Advantages of issue of bonus shares: To the company: Conservation of Cash: In issuing bonus shares, cash outflow is not at all involved. The company can retain earnings as well as satisfy the desire of the shareholders to receive dividend. Keeps the EPS at a reasonable level: Company may face problems having high earning per share both from employees and consumers. Employees may feel that they are underpaid. While consumers may feel that they are being charged too high for the companys products. Issue of bonus shares increases the number of shares and reduces the earning per share. Increases the marketability of companys shares: Issue of bonus shares reduces the market price per share. Enhances prestige of the company: By issuing bonus shares, the company increases its credit standing and its borrowing capacity. It reflects financial strength of the company. It helps in financing its projects: By issuing bonus shares, the expansion and other projects of a company can be easily financed. The company need not depend on outside agencies for finances. To the Shareholders: Tax benefits: When a shareholder receives dividend in cash, it adds to his total income and is taxed at usual income tax rates. Indication of higher future profits: Issue of bonus shares is generally an indication of higher future profits. Increase in future dividend: The shareholder will get more dividends in the future even if the company continues to offer existing cash dividend per share. High psychological value: Issue of bonus shares is usually perceived positively by the market. Limitations of Bonus Issues: For the company: After the issue of the bonus shares the shareholders expectation of increment in the existing rate of dividend per share continues. It becomes really a challenging task for the company to retain the existing rate of dividend per share. Issue of bonus shares prevents new investors from becoming the shareholders of the company. For shareholders: Some shareholders may prefer cash dividend to stock dividend, such shareholders may feel disappointed (no doubt they can very well sell their bonus shares and get their money). Dividend Tax Policy in India: Before 1997 in India, dividends were taxed in hands of the shareholders. They used to disclose the dividend income under the head Income from Other Sources and then used to pay tax on dividend at a rate that depended on their individual tax bracket. After 1997, Government of India introduced the dividend distribution tax, according to which, when company announces dividends, it also pays the dividend distribution tax directly to the Government of India. Therefore, shareholders do not have to pay any tax they receive. The Finance Act, 1997 introduced the dividend distribution tax for the first time in India and under this system, companies used to pay dividend distribution tax directly at the rate of 10%. Here, this act benefited to those shareholders who fell in the higher than 10% tax bracket. The 2002-03 Budget reverted back to the earlier system for one year where dividends were again taxed in hands of shareholders. However, the 2003-04 Budget reintroduced the dividend distribution tax rate in India but at a higher rate of 12.5% plus surcharges. And currently the effective dividend distribution tax rate in India is 16.609%.

Medicaid for Millionaires :: essays research papers

Summary: Medicaid for Millionaires briefly touches on one of the many problems facing the U.S. and its current Medicaid policy. The articles begins by acknowledging the fact that Medicaid was originally formed in 1965 with the intent of providing medical care just for the poor, and how lately this hasn’t been the case. Today were finding out how more of societies upper-class are discovering ways to receive Medicaid benefits as well. The system is being called â€Å"Asset-Shifting†, were anyone is allowed to give away most of their assets (no matter the cost) to someone else and three years later claim the same medical benefits being set aside for the poor. As quoted in the article â€Å"there’s an entire industry being dedicated to making sure that other taxpayers, not they, be responsible for paying the nursing-home needs of the richâ€Å". Though morally questionable, more and more Medical Planners today directly counsel their well-off clients on how to take advantage of this loop-hole in our system. A more troubling fact is that of the 100% of the less fortunate that occupy the scarcer Medicaid beds being provided by the government, 70% of those in well kept nursing homes receive the same exact Medicaid benefits. Many government officials have tried to stop this on going trend by passing laws during the 90’s that required states to recover the cost of benefits from the estates of those who attempt asset shifting, however failing miserably due to half-hearted efforts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To our governments credit the efforts of a decade ago didn’t break sprits of our lawmakers who still feel that asset shifting is a unjust practice. Four states have already implemented the new Partnership Program, which allows a consumer who buys, 100,000 in long term care to exempt that sum before claiming the rest of their assets, which would in turn allow that person to preserve money for their heirs and/or purchase the long-term care of their choice.

Cheri Essay -- essays research papers

In Colette’s Chà ©ri, the main character Là ©a is a lustful middle-aged woman who has become lovers with a younger fellow named Chà ©ri. At the beginning of the novel, their relationship is portrayed as being thick with devotion and seems likely to endure forever. But by the end, the two have split indefinitely, leaving Là ©a with unanswered passion from Chà ©ri. What could have caused this relationship to crumble to the point of extinction, even while their love was so strong for each other? Là ©a’s increasing overconfidence toward her relationship with Chà ©ri leads to her hopeless state of naà ¯vety. She becomes so encompassed with thoughts of only Chà ©ri and that she would do anything for Chà ©ri, that he ends up taking advantage of her; in the process, however, he also robs Là ©a of her freedom to love someone else passionately.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since Là ©a is a respectable amount of years older than Chà ©ri, she believes that it is her duty to have Chà ©ri taken care of physically and emotionally. For one, the age difference between her and her lover secures her in this thought. She becomes so confident in retaining Chà ©ri under her wing for six years, that she is bold enough to liken their relationship to â€Å"an adoption† (7). Là ©a, at times, even views Chà ©ri as her son and herself as the mother, and the distinction in their age clearly supports her theory. She recognizes though, and is even embarrassed to admit, that their relationship has gone on longer than it should have, longer than any she has ever had (7). Here, time alone contributes to Cheri’s emerging dominance. This blind sense of power that Là ©a experiences, however, leads her mind to return to a state of naà ¯vety. Là ©a is once again an adolescent but Chà ©ri is no longer her bachelor, rather, he takes on the role of her parent. At the moment that she feels as if the relationship is in her control, Là ©a unknowingly grants Chà ©ri the leadership to their love. When Là ©a is finally secure enough to admit that their love might actually last and that she is confident in keeping the controls, this is the point where she looses her hold on Chà ©ri, and he is instead dominant over her. Although Là ©a’s naà ¯vety leads to Chà ©ri’s supremacy, it is also due to Chà ©ri’s realization that he is a man capable of controlling women, especially vulnerable, older women that leads to Chà ©ri’s dominion. Since Chà ©ri is the younger of the two l... ...at his youthful charm has done the trick once more. Chà ©ri’s sudden departure for his wedding and at the end of the novel clearly shows his ability to control Là ©a. He is so powerful, in fact, that Là ©a is no longer able to love someone else passionately. At Chà ©ri’s primary departure for his wedding, Là ©a even has to lie about having a new lover; the love that she possesses for Chà ©riwas simply too strong for her to ignore, although she doesn’t mind lying to others to show a seemingly transitory recovery. She simply doesn’t want people to know that Chà ©ri has affected her, a courtesan. She wants to prove to others, though distorting it to herself, that she is capable of terminating her feelings for Chà ©ri just like he is capable of denying her as well. Là ©a’s strength is clearly also her weakness: although she possesses the ability to be confident and firm, her relationship with Chà ©ri has brought her confidence and willingness to the point of excess, and the boldness she once showed to others has in turn backfired. She is no longer dominant over Chà ©ri in the relationship, but only realizes this after he is gone from her life. She finally understands that he will be the last of her lovers.

Why the United States Became Increasingly Involved in the War in Vietna

Why the United States Became Increasingly Involved in the War in Vietnam The Vietnam conflict originated from a struggle against the colonial rule from France. Vietnam, previously known as Indochina, had been part of the French empire up until 1940, when France was defeated in the Second World War by Germany. During the German occupation of France, Japan seized control of Vietnam and it’s main resources like coal, rice and rubber. While the war was still being fought however, a strong anti-Japanese movement known as the Viet Minh emerged under the leadership of Communist Ho Chi Minh. This group fought against Japanese rule, and by the end of the Second World War, had successfully taken control of North Vietnam while still determined to declare Vietnamese independence across the whole country. In 1945, the French arrived to resume their control over Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh had successfully defeated the Japanese for his country’s independence and hoped the Viet Minh could be victorious once again over France. In 1946, war broke out between the French and the Viet Minh. To begin with, the USA was somewhat sympathetic towards Vietnam, seeing the conflict as a struggle against colonial rule. The story changed however when China became a Communist state and offered support to Ho Chi Minh. America feared a Communist plan to dominate all of South-East Asia and quickly set about pouring money (over $500 million a year) into the French War effort. This support allowed France to successfully set up a non-Communist government in the South of the country. The American support was the product of the â€Å"Truman Doctrine†, a mission designed to â€Å"protec... ...r into war.† Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, with his successor – Lyndon Johnson – more prepared to commit the USA to more extreme actions. He was willing to start a full-scale conflict in Vietnam if it were to prevent the spread of Communism. In August 1964, the US ship Maddox was fired on by North Vietnamese patrol boats in the Gulf of Tonkin. Because of this, American Congress passed the â€Å"Tonkin Gulf Resolution† which allowed Johnson the power to take â€Å"all necessary measures to prevent further aggression and achieve peace and security.† In other words, the President could take the USA into a full scale war should he feel it was necessary. By March 8th 1965, this was the case. 3500 US marines arrived at Da Nang, just as â€Å"Operation Rolling Thunder† came into play. America’s involvement escalated to war in Vietnam.

Transfer of Learning

1. IntroductionTransportation of Learning â€Å" That about charming nexus between schoolroom public presentation and something which is supposed to go on in the existent universe † – J. M. Swinney. ( Everett, 2010 ) Transportation of larning occurs when larning in one context or with one set of stuffs impacts on public presentation in another context or with other related stuffs. It is the application of cognition, attitudes and accomplishments acquired in a course of study at a university ( Perkins, 1992 ) . Transportation of larning occurs when larning in one context enhances ( positive transportation ) or undermines ( negative transportation ) a related public presentation in another context. Transfer includes near transportation ( to closely related contexts and public presentations ) and far transportation ( to instead different contexts and public presentations ) . ( Perkins, 1992 ) . One of the major constructs in instruction and larning theory is the transportation of larning construct. Typically the ultimate contexts of application ( occupation, calling ) diverge conspicuously from the context of larning ( schoolrooms, exercising books, trials, simple streamlined undertakings ) . As a consequence, the concluding ends of instruction are non realized unless transportation occurs. Furthermore, transportation of knowledge/learning can non be taken for granted ; as it is shown in assorted surveies were frequently the hoped transportation from larning experiences did non happen ( Perkins, 1992 ) . In add-on, for bettering instruction non merely this transportation of larning construct is of importance but besides the development of the teaching staff is indispensable The subject of this survey is to look into if instructors within the module of wellness medical specialty and life scientific disciplines ( FHML ) of the University of Maastricht besides are cognizant of this â€Å"transfer of learning† . Additionally, I would wish to look into if the instructor has a certain scheme refering transportation of acquisition and is portion of a professional development plan to better the instruction aka the transportation of cognition / acquisition.2. Description of the instructor.Dr. Herman Popeijus, is learning for approximately 4 at the University of Maastricht. He is chiefly learning first twelvemonth pupils, because since a twelvemonth he is the unit coordinator of the 2nd unit in the first twelvemonth of Health Sciences at the FHML. Furthermore he is involved in other units as a coach or as a accomplishments ( or practical ) trainer, although this is more in the course of study of Bio Medical Life Sciences at the FHML. In his function as unit coordinator, Herman, is involved in all facets of instruction, giving talks, steering workgroups and helping accomplishments developing for the first twelvemonth pupils. This interview was held Thursday, 25-03-2010, from 14:00 – 14:20 in the office of the interviewer. The interview was held in Dutch and taped utilizing a digital voice recording equipment. To hold a more natural treatment about the instruction methods and to bury about the voice recording equipment, the first 5 proceedingss of the interview were about day-to-day topics. Although the interviewer had some inquiries prepared as a guideline to direct the interview. An English interlingual rendition of the transcript is given in appendix A.3. AnalysisNo one method of content analysis can be used for all types of interview informations. Contented analysis is a widely used qualitative research technique. Rather than being a individual method, current applications of content analysis show three distinguishable attacks: conventional, directed, or summational ( Hsieh & A ; Shannon, 2005 ) . These attacks are used to construe significance from the content of text informations or transcrip t informations of an interview. In conventional content analysis, coding classs are derived straight from the text informations. With a directed attack, analysis starts with a theory or relevant research findings as counsel for initial codifications. A summational content analysis involves numbering and comparings, normally of keywords or content, followed by the reading of the underlying context. In this paper I choose the directed attack, with counsel for initial codifications. The focal point of the analysis is to look for schemes and for indicant of transportation of cognition by the instructor. The undermentioned codes/chategories were chosen: 1. Personal engagement in learning ; 2. Problems identified by the instructor ; 3. Solutions to the jobs ; 4. Professional development.4. Consequences4.1. Personal engagement in learningThe instructor gave multiple statements about this subject, as he is a unit coordinator his personal engagement in instruction is really profound. Due to this function, he is besides really involved in the content and may experience responsible for the result, ( e.g. class of his pupils ) . Therefore he is really focussed on transportation of cognition. He is besides cognizant of he ‘s possible short approachs, and is interested in the sentiments of the pupils about his instruction method. He tries to look into if transportation of cognition has occurred, coming back in his coach group on the subject, besides repeat indispensable stairss once more at the terminal of the coach group, or inquiring directed inquiry during his talks.4.2. Problems identified by the instructorAlthough, the instructor mentioned that there are several hard subjects or constructs in his unit, merely one illustration was given, but this was discussed extensively. Furthermore, he was cognizant that these jobs may besides be due to the fact that a big portion of the pupils have no anterior cognition of biological science and that biological science is card inal for this unit in which he is the unit coordinator.4.3. Solutions to the jobsThe chief focal point on work outing the jobs or job discussed was the usage of new electronic AIDSs. Such as available alive films, which are demoing these new constructs or jobs in great item. It has to be noted that the instructor was cognizant of the defects of this solution. However, the instructor did non advert other options, such as analogies which may be used alternatively every bit good.4.4. Professional developmentIt became clear from the interview that there is some kind of professional development plan available at his organisation, but so far he has non got any rating. The instructor feels this deficiency of aid a great girl. Although he mention that he took action on this point on his ain, by delegating to a specific instruction class, which is provide by his organisation. The instructor is really focused on the results from the pupils, and besides gives great value to the ratings from th e pupils, even though these are most in paper formats and non unwritten.5. Conclusion/Advice to the instructorDr. H. Popeijus ( HP ) has a clear position on his unit and what are the jobs within this unit, as became clear that for his unit some biological science background is necessary. His consciousness on instruction is really unfastened and modern ; he is integrating new techniques or characteristics in his talks. He is unfastened for the sentiments of the pupils and is clearly involved in transportation of cognition or acquisition, even though he might non be cognizant of this. From assorted surveies is known that the attending span of pupils is limited in the context of long talks. The â€Å"information transfer† theoretical account of the traditional talks does non fit what current cognitive scientific discipline research tells us of human acquisition ( Middendorf, 1996 ) . So by utilizing extra tools HP is seeking to act upon the information transportation during his talks. He besides mentions that he is cognizant of the drawback of utilizing alive films in his talks. However, with consciousness of the possible drawbacks of the big format, talks can be used as valuable tools for larning besides in a PBL course of study ( Fyrenius, Bergdahl, & A ; Silen, 2005 ) . Furthermore, it might besides be helpful to utilize analogies next to alive films because it can assist pupils to utilize the information they already understand to develop an apprehension of new constructs. Analogies are comparings between two spheres that are neither, wholly similar nor wholly different. These comparings are used to advance transportation of information from one specific job to another peculiar job ( MaryKay & A ; George, 2006 ) . Due to the fact that some pupils lack the biological science background it may useful to utilize analogies which domain is non in biological science but in another more basic field ( eg. Book with chapters as an analogy for DNA codification with cistrons ) . To better instruction or the instruction by staff members a high-quality professional development constituent would be of great value to the administration every bit good as add-on to the professional development of HP. â€Å"It is good recognized by policymakers that schools can be no better than the instructors and decision makers who work within them† ( Guskey, 2002 ) . It is good known that staff members or module members are passionate about their discipline/profession. They are besides really acute to reassign their cognition and the significance of this cognition to their pupils. Regardless of these good purposes, they may be so occupied with covering the capable affair that they lose path of how much of that stuff truly gets conveyed ( Montgomery, 1998 ) . It is hence that there are good developmental plans inside the institute or university to develop and alter the manner the instructors work. For most instructors, to go a better instructor means heightening pupils la rning results ( Guskey, 2002 ) . Harmonizing to the theoretical account from Guskey, of import alteration in instructors ‘ mentalities take topographic point after the instructors ‘ see grounds of betterments in pupil acquisition. When instructors have used new instructional attacks, or utilizing new stuff these betterments may happen. It is hence that there is a good ratings system for the instructors non merely on the degree of pupils outcome but besides on the public presentation as a instructor ego. An advice to HP is to seek such rating and counsel from his ain institute or administration. In drumhead the advice to HP is, maintain up with the new inventions in your talks, but besides seek to utilize analogies to clear up some hard jobs and seek to happen out if the university has some teacher staff development plans to better the instruction. Transfer of Learning Transfer of learning is the study of the dependency of human conduct, learning, or performance on prior experience. The notion was originally introduced as transfer of practice by Edward Thorndike and Robert S. Woodworth. They explored how individuals would transfer learning in one context to another context that shared similar characteristics – or more formally how â€Å"improvement in one mental function† could influence another related one.Their theory implied that transfer of learning depends on the proportion to which the learning task and the transfer task are similar, or where â€Å"identical elements are concerned in the influencing and influenced function†, now known as identical element theory. Transfer research has since attracted much attention in numerous domains, producing a wealth of empirical findings and theoretical interpretations.However, there remains considerable controversy about how transfer of learning should be conceptualized and explaine d, what its probability occurrence is, what its relation is to learning in general, or whether it may be said to exist at all. Most discussions of transfer to date can be developed from a common operational definition, describing it as the process and the effective extent to which past experiences (also referred to as the transfer source) affect learning and performance in a current novel situation (the transfer target) (Ellis, 1965; Woodworth, 1938).This, however, is usually where the general consensus between various research approaches ends. Transfer taxonomies Of the various attempts to delineate transfer, typological and taxonomic approaches belong to the more common ones (see, e. g. , Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Butterfield, 1988; Detterman, 1993; Gagne, 1977; Reeves & Weisberg, 1994; Salomon & Perkins, 1989; Singley & Anderson, 1989). Taxonomies are concerned with distinguishing different types of transfer, and therefore less involved with labeling the actual vehicle of transfer, i . e. , what is the explanatory mental unit of transfer that is carried over.Hence, a key problem with many transfer taxonomies is that they offer an excessive number of labels for different types of transfer without engaging in a discussion of the underlying concepts that would justify their distinction; i. e. , similarity and the nature of transferred information. This makes it very difficult to appreciate the internal validity of the models. The following table presents different types of transfer, as adapted from Schunk (2004, p. 220). TypeCharacteristics NearOverlap between situations, original and transfer contexts are similar. FarLittle overlap between situations, original and transfer settings are dissimilar.PositiveWhat is learned in one context enhances learning in a different setting. NegativeWhat is learned in one context hinders or delays learning in a different setting. VerticalKnowledge of a previous topic is essential to acquire new knowledge. HorizontalKnowledge of a previous topic is not essential but helpful to learn a new topic. LiteralIntact knowledge transfers to new task. FiguralUse some aspect of general knowledge to think or learn about a problem. Low RoadTransfer of well-established skills in almost automatic fashion. High RoadTransfer involves abstraction so conscious formulations of connections between contexts.High Road/Forward ReachingAbstracting situations from a learning context to a potential transfer context. High Road/Backward ReachingAbstracting in the transfer context features of a previous situation where new skills and knowledge were learned. Apart from the effect-based distinction between negative and positive transfer, taxonomies have largely been constructed along two, mostly tacit, dimensions. One concerns the predicted relationship between the primary and secondary learning situation in terms of the categorical overlap of features and knowledge specificity constraints.The other concerns general assumptions about how t ransfer relationships are established, in terms of mental effort and cognitive process. The effect-perspective: positive vs. negative transfer Starting by looking at the effect side of transfer – in terms of the common performance criteria, speed and accuracy – transfer theories distinguish between two broad classes that underlie all other classifications: negative andpositive transfer. Negative transfer refers to the impairment of current learning and performance due to the application of non-adaptive or inappropriate information or behavior.Therefore, negative transfer is a type of interference effect of prior experience causing a slow-down in learning, completion or solving of a new task when compared to the performance of a hypothetical control group with no respective prior experience. Positive transfer, in contrast, emphasizes the beneficial effects of prior experience on current thinking and action. It is important to understand that the positive and negative ef fects of transfer are not mutually exclusive, and therefore real-life transfer effects are probably mostly a mixture of both.Positive transfer: transfer of learning or training is said to be positive when the learning or training carried out in one situation proves helpful to learning in another situation. Examples of such transfer are: †¢the knowledge and skills related to school mathematics help in the learning of statistical computation; †¢the knowledge and skills acquired in terms of addition and subtraction in mathematics in school may help a child in the acquisition of knowledge and skills regarding multiplication and division; †¢learning to play badminton may help an individual to play ping pong (table tennis) and lawn tennis.The situation perspective: specific vs. general, near vs. far transfer The situation-driven perspective on transfer taxonomies is concerned with describing the relation between transfer source (i. e. , the prior experience) and transfer ta rget (i. e. , the novel situation). In other words, the notion of novelty of the target situation per se is worthless without specifying the degree of novelty in relation to something that existed before. Butterfield and Nelson (1991), for example, distinguish between within-task, across-task, and inventive transfer.A similar classification approach reappears in many situation-driven transfer taxonomies (e. g. , similar vs. different situations, example-to-principle and vice versa, simple-to-complex and vice versa) and can be noted as distinctions made along the specific vs. general dimension. Mayer and Wittrock (1996, pp. 49ff. ) discuss transfer under the labels of general â€Å"transfer of general skill† (e. g. , â€Å"Formal Discipline†, Binet, 1899), â€Å"specific transfer of specific skill† (e. g. , Thorndike’s, 1924a, b, â€Å"identical elements† theory), â€Å"specific transfer of general skill† (e. g. Gestaltists' transfer theory, see origins with Judd, 1908), and â€Å"meta-cognitive control of general and specific skills† as a sort of combination of the previous three views (see, e. g. , Brown, 1989). Haskell's (2001) taxonomy proposes a more gradual scheme of similarity between tasks and situations. It distinguishes between non-specific transfer (i. e. , the constructivist idea that all learning builds on present knowledge), application transfer (i. e. , the retrieval and use of knowledge on a previously learned task), context transfer (actually meaning context-free transfer between similar tasks), near vs. ar transfer, and finally displacement or creative transfer (i. e. , an inventive or analytic type of transfer that refers to the creation of a new solution during problem solving as a result of a synthesis of past and current learning experiences). Both near and far transfer are widely used terms in the literature. The former refers to transfer of learning when task and/or context change slightly but remain largely similar, the latter to the application of learning experiences to related but largely dissimilar problems. The process perspectiveThe specific vs. general dimension applies not just to the focus on the relation between source and target, i. e. , from where to where is transferred, but also to the question about the transfer process itself, i. e. , what is transferred and how. Reproductive vs. productive transfer (see Robertson, 2001) are good examples of this type of distinction, whereas reproductive transfer refers to the simple application of knowledge to a novel task, productive transfer implies adaptation; i. e. mutation and enhancement of retained information.A similar dichotomous distinction is the one between knowledge transfer and problem-solving transfer (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996). Knowledge transfer takes place when knowing something after learning task A facilitates or interferes with the learning process or performance in task B. Knowledge used is refer red to by many different terms, such as declarative or procedural types (Anderson, 1976), but it means that there are representational elements that suit A and B. Problem solving transfer, on the other hand, is described as somewhat more â€Å"fluid knowledge† transfer, so that experience in solving a problem A helps finding a solution to problem B.This can mean that the two problems share little in terms of specific declarative knowledge entities or procedures, but call for a similar approach, or solution search strategies (e. g. , heuristics and problem solving methods). The issues discussed in problem-solving transfer literature are also closely related to the concepts of strategic and theoretic transfer (Haskell, 2001, p. 31), and cognitive research on analogical reasoning, rule-based thinking and meta-cognition.Indeed, far transfer can be considered as the prototypical type of transfer, and it is closely related to the study of analogical reasoning (see also Barnett & Ce ci, 2002, for a taxonomy of far transfer). Within the problem-solving literature the distinction between specific and general methods is made mostly with reference to Newell and Simon's (1972) strong vs. weak problem solving methods (Chi, Glaser & Farr, 1988; Ericsson & Smith, 1991; Singley & Anderson, 1989; Sternberg & Frensch, 1991). Another concern that is frequently addressed in transfer taxonomies is the question of conscious effort.High-road vs. low-road transfer (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996; Salomon & Perkins, 1989) expresses a distinction between such instances of transfer where active retrieval, mapping, and inference processes take place, as opposed to those instances that occur rather spontaneously or automatically. Hence, low-road transfer concerns frequently employed mental representations and automated, proceduralized knowledge, and occurs preferably in near transfer settings. In contrast, high-road transfer is more conception-driven, and requires cognitive and meta-cogniti ve effort. Traditional fields of transfer researchThere are a nearly unlimited number of research fields that share some applied interest into the study of transfer, as it pertains to learning in general. Three fields that contributed in most substantial ways to the progress of transfer research, both from a conception and empirical point of view, are the fields of education science, linguistics, and human-computer interaction (HCI). In fact, most transfer research has been conducted in reference to one of these applied settings, rather than in basic cognitive psychological laboratory conditions. Education science: teaching for transferDue to their core concern with learning, educational science and practice are the classic fields of interest regarding transfer research, and probably the prime target for the application of theories. Transfer of learning represents much of the very basis of the educational purpose itself. What is learned inside one classroom about a certain subject s hould aid in the attainment of related goals in other classroom settings, and beyond that it should be applicable to the student's developmental tasks outside the school; the need for transfer becomes more accentuated.This is because the world educators teach in today is different from the world they themselves experienced as students, and differs equally from the one their students will have to cope with in the future. By nature of their applied interest, educationalists' main concern has been less with the question of how transfer takes place, and much more with under what conditions, or, that it happens at all. The basic conviction that student's learning and achievement levels depend primarily on learning and achievement prerequisites, has constituted a central part in educational learning theories for quite some time (Gage & Berliner, 1983; Glaser, 984). The major focus in educational transfer studies has, therefore, been on what kind of initial learning enables subsequent tran sfer: teaching for transfer. Research on learning and transfer has identified key characteristics with implications for educational practice. From Formal Discipline to meta-cognition Educational transfer paradigms have been changing quite radically over the last one hundred years.According to the doctrinaire beliefs of the Formal Discipline (Binet, 1899) transfer was initially viewed as a kind of global spread of capabilities accomplished by training basic mental faculties (e. g. , logic, attention, memory) in the exercise of suitable subjects, such as Latin or geometry. With the turn of the 20th century, learning, and therefore transfer of learning, was increasingly captured in behavioral and empiricist terms, as in the Connectionist and Associationist theories of Thorndike (e. g. , 1932), Guthrie (e. g. , 1935), Hull (e. g. , 1943), and Skinner (e. g. , 1938).Thorndike (1923, 1924a and b) attacked the Formal Discipline empirically and theoretically and introduced the theory of â⠂¬Å"identical elements†, which is probably still today the most influential conception about transfer (Thorndike, 1906; Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901a, b and c). Thorndike's belief that transfer of learning occurs when learning source and learning target share common stimulus-response elements prompted calls for a hierarchical curricular structure in education. â€Å"Lower† and specific skills should be learned before more complex skills, which were presumed to consist largely of configuration of basic skills.This small-to-large learning, also referred to as part-to-whole or vertical transfer, has been popular with theories of learning hierarchies (Gagne, 1968). It has later been challenged from conceptualistic point of views, which argue that learning is not just an accumulation of pieces of knowledge (i. e. , rote memorization), but rather a process and product of active construction of cognitive knowledge structures (Bruner, 1986; Bruner, Goodnow & Austin, 1956). Knowl edge, from a constructivist perspective, was no more believed to be a simple transfer by generalization to all kinds of situations and tasks that contain similar components (i. . , stimulus-response patterns; see also Logan, 1988; Meyers & Fisk, 1987; Osgood, 1949; Pavlov, 1927). The critical issue was the identification of similarities in general principles and concepts behind the facades of two dissimilar problems; i. e. , transfer by insight. This idea became popular in the Gestaltists' view on transfer (e. g. , Katona, 1940), and, in combination with growing interest in learners as self activated problem-solvers (Bruner, 1986), encouraged the search for abstract problem-solving methods and mental schemata, which serve as analogy-enhancing transfer-bridges between different task situations.Emerging from these developments, a new theme started to dominate educationalists' research in transfer: meta-cognition (Brown, 1978; Brown & Campione, 1981; Campione & Brown, 1987; Flavell, 19 76). In contrast to classical knowledge forms like declarative and procedural knowledge, different types of meta-knowledge and meta-cognitive skills such as strategic knowledge, heuristics, self-monitoring skills, and self-regulation quickly became the road to learning and transfer.Characterized as self-conscious management and organization of acquired knowledge (Brown, 1987) it is evident that meta-cognitive awareness of task features, problem structures, and solution methods makes relations between different situations cognitively salient: only an individual who learns from learning, learns for future learning. Soini (1999) developed on the same core ideas an examination of the preconditions for active transfer. Her emphasis is on the active and self-reflected management of knowledge to increase its accessibility.To some researchers, meta-cognition and transfer have become so entangled that the argument was generated that only the measurement of positive transfer effects truly sup ports inferences that meta-cognitive learning has taken place (e. g. MacLeod, Butler & Syer, 1996). The generality predicament: return to the specificity view Ever since the introduction of the meta-knowledge theme in education science, transfer discussions have been oscillating between the position taken by those representing the meta-cognitive view and those who stress that generic knowledge forms alone do not allow an effective transfer of learning.When knowledge stays â€Å"on the tip of the tongue†, just knowing that one knows a solution to a problem, without being able to transfer specific declarative knowledge (i. e. , know-what) or automated procedural knowledge (i. e. , know-how), does not suffice. Specific teaching of the cognitive and behavioral requisites for transfer marked in principle a return to the identical element view, and can be summarized with Dettermann's (1993) conclusion that transfer does not substantially go beyond the restricted boundaries of what has been specifically taught and learned.The basic transfer paradigms in educational psychology keep replicating themselves, and fundamental promotion of transfer itself is seen to be achievable through sensibilization of students by creating a general culture and â€Å"a spirit of transfer† inside the classroom on the one hand, and by allowing concrete learning from transfer models on the other (Haskell, 2001). Learning and transfer: implications for educational practice A modern view of transfer in the context of educational practice shows little need to distinguish between the general and specific paradigms, recognizing the role of both identical elements and metacognition.In this view, the work of Bransford, Brown and Cocking (1999) identified four key characteristics of learning as applied to transfer. They are: 1. The necessity of initial learning; 2. The importance of abstract and contextual knowledge; 3. The conception of learning as an active and dynamic process; and 4. The notion that all learning is transfer. First, the necessity of initial learning for transfer specifies that mere exposure or memorization is not learning; there must be understanding.Learning as understanding takes time, such that expertise with deep, organized knowledge improves transfer. Teaching that emphasizes how to use knowledge or that improves motivation should enhance transfer. Second, while knowledge anchored in context is important for initial learning, it is also inflexible without some level of abstraction that goes beyond the context. Practices to improve transfer include having students specify connections across multiple contexts or having them develop general solutions and strategies that would apply beyond a single-context case.Third, learning should be considered an active and dynamic process, not a static product. Instead of one-shot tests that follow learning tasks, students can improve transfer by engaging in assessments that extend beyond current abilit ies. Improving transfer in this way requires instructor prompts to assist students – such as dynamic assessments – or student development of metacognitive skills without prompting. Finally, the fourth characteristic defines all learning as transfer.New learning builds on previous learning, which implies that teachers can facilitate transfer by activating what students know and by making their thinking visible. This includes addressing student misconceptions and recognizing cultural behaviors that students bring to learning situations. A student-learning centered view of transfer embodies these four characteristics. With this conception, teachers can help students transfer learning not just between contexts in academics, but also to common home, work, or community environments. Inter-language transferAnother traditional field of applied research is inter-language transfer. Here, the central questions were: how does learning one language (L1) facilitate or interfere (Wei nreich, 1953) with the acquisition of and proficiency in a second language (L2), and how does the training and use of L2, in turn, affect L1? Several variations of this conception of inter-language transfer can be found in the literature, also referred to as mother tongue influence or cross language interference (Corder, 1983, 1994; Faerch & Kasper, 1987; Jiang & Kuehn, 2001; Odlin, 1989; O’Malley nd Chamot, 1990). What makes inter-language transfer a complex and valuable research matter is the fact that language knowledge skills continuously develop. This is so for L1, as well as for L2, when only bilingualism is considered, while alternately at least one of them is continuously in use. This has led to the development of very different models of how languages are mentally represented and managed, with L1 and L2 seen as two independent or autonomous mental systems (e. g. Genesee, 1989; Grosjean, 1989), as being represented in a single unified system (e. g.Redlinger & Park, 19 80; Swain, 1977), and as rooting in a common underlying, multi-lingual conceptual base (CUCB; see Kecskes & Papp, 2000). Human-Computer Interaction: designing for transfer A third research area that has produced a variety of transfer models and empirical results can be located within the field of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). With the start of the user age in the 1980s, HCI and all kinds of virtual environments have, in many ways, become something like psychological micro-worlds for cognitive research. This is naturally also reflected in the study of transfer.Developments in favor of cognitive approaches to transfer research were especially accelerated by rapid changes in modern lifestyles, resulting in a virtual upsurge of cognitive demands in interaction with technology. Thus, the call was on clearly domain-focused cognitive models to study the way users learn and perform when interacting with information technological systems (Card, Moran & Newell, 1980a and b, 1983; Olson & Olson, 1990; Payne & Green, 1986; Polson, 1987, 1988). Transfer based on the user complexity theory Thorough investigations of cognitive skills involved in HCI tasks have their origins with the research on text editing (e. . , Kieras & Polson, 1982, 1985; Singley & Anderson, 1985). The offspring of this type of research were computational cognitive models and architectures of various degrees of sophistication, suitable for all kinds of man-machine interaction studies, as well as studies outside of the HCI domain. The original examples for these have become Kieras and Polson's (1985) user complexity theory (later rephrased as cognitive complexity theory) and the GOMS family (i. e. , Goals, Operators, Methods, Selection) rules based on the Model Human Processor framework (Card et al. , 1980a and b, 1983; John & Kieras, 1996a and b).All of these models have their roots in the basic principles of production systems and can be comprehended with the help of ends-means-selections and If-Th en-rules, combined with the necessary declarative and procedural knowledge (Anderson, 1995; Newell & Simon, 1972). The crucial perspective for transfer became that of technology design. By applying cognitive models, scientists and practitioners aimed at minimizing the amount and complexity of new knowledge necessary to understand and perform tasks on a device, without trading off too much utility value (Polson & Lewis, 1990).A key responsibility was given to skill and knowledge transfer. Due to the fact that the cognitive complexity theory is a psychological theory of transfer applied to HCI (Bovair, Kieras, & Polson, 1990; Polson & Kieras, 1985), the central question was how these models, united under the GOMS umbrella, can be used to explain and predict transfer of learning. The basic transfer-relevant assumptions of the emerging models were that production rules are cognitive units, they are all equally difficult to learn, and that learned rules can be transferred to a new task w ithout any cost.Because learning time for any task is seen as a function of the number of new rules that the user must learn, total learning time is directly reduced by inclusion of productions the user is already familiar with. The basic message of the cognitive complexity theory is to conceptualize and induce transfer from one system to another by function of shared production rules, which is a new interpretation of Thorndike's (1923, 1924a and b) identical element premise and eventually echoed in Singley and Anderson's (1989) theory of transfer (Bovair et al. 1990; Kieras & Bovair, 1986; Polson & Kieras, 1985; Polson, Muncher & Engelbeck, 1986). A practical implication of the procedural communality principle has been formulated by Lewis and Rieman (1993), who suggest something like â€Å"transfer of design† on the side of the industry: â€Å"You should find existing interfaces that work for users and then build ideas from those interfaces into your systems as much as prac tically and legally possible. † Emergence of holistic views of useDiscouraged by the confined character of the GOMS-related transfer models, many research groups began to import and advance new concepts, such as schemata principles and general methods; a general development encouraged by the emerging cognitive approach to transfer that was also witnessed by other applied fields. Bhavnani and John (2000) analyzed different computer applications and strived to identify such user strategies (i. e. , general methods to perform a certain task), which generalize across three distinct computer domains (word processor, spreadsheet, and CAD).Their conclusive argument is that â€Å"strategy-conducive systems could facilitate the transfer of knowledge† (p. 338). Other research groups' authors that assessed the questions about how people learn in interaction with information systems, evaluated the usefulness of metaphors and how these should be taken into consideration when designi ng for exploratory environments (e. g. Baecker, Grudin, Buxton, & Greenberg, 1995; Carroll & Mack, 1985, Condon, 1999).As researchers became increasingly interested in the quality of a user's knowledge representation (e. g. , Gott, Hall, Pokorny, Dibble, & Glaser, 1993), mental models and adaptive expertise, as knowledge and skills which generalizes across different contexts of complex problem-solving tasks, became of paramount concern (Gentner & Stevens, 1983; Gott, 1989; Kieras & Bovair, 1984). In contrast to the knowledge of strategies (Bhavnani & John, 2000), the accentuation shifted towards strategic knowledge (Gott et al. 1993). Gott et al. demonstrated that surface similarities between different technical domains alone did not essentially facilitate transfer of learning because they limited the user's flexibility in the adaptation process. In accordance with the ideas of schema-based and meta-cognitive transfer, the authors further formulated that â€Å"robust performance is one in which procedural steps are not just naked, rule-based actions, but instead are supported by explanations that perform like theories to enable adaptiveness† (p. 60). Gott et al. (1993) finally noted that mental models might be powerful instruments to analyze similarities between tasks as represented within a formulated cognitive architecture. However, they do not explain what particular similarities and differences are sufficiently salient from the individual's mental point of view to affect transfer of learning, nor can they predict motivational or emotional conditions of transfer that are essential requisites for every learning process.